Bones may be classified according to shape:
Long bones
Long bones are those in which the length exceeds the
breadth and thickness. They include :
Each long bone has
(i)Shaft
or diaphysis
(ii)Epiphyses.
Two ends or extremities, which are usually articular; wider than the
shaft
The epiphyses of a growing bone are either entirely
cartilaginous. If epiphysial ossification has begun, epiphyses are separated
from the shaft by cartilaginous epiphysial plates (discs).
Metaphysis. The part of the shaft adjacent to an
epiphysial disc, with the growth zone and newly formed bone. In the adult,
the caritlagenous epiphyseal plate disappears and the bony tissue of the
metaphysis and of the epiphysis is continuous.
Medullary (marrow) cavity. A tube of compact bone
(compacta) - the shaft of a long bone (diaphysis).
Medullary cavity contains either red (blood-forming) or
yellow (fatty) marrow, or combinations of both.
The cavity of the epiphysis and metaphysis contains
irregular, anastomosing bars or trabeculae, which form what is known as
spongy or cancellous bone.
The spaces between the trabeculae are filled with
marrow.
The bone on the articular surfaces of the ends is covered by
cartilage, which is usually hyaline.
Periosteum. A connective tissue sheath surrounding the
shaft of a long bone.
Periosteum is composed of :-
(i)A
tough, outer fibrous layer, which acts as a limiting membrane
(ii)An
inner, more cellular osteogenic layer.
Endosteum . A thin, cellular layer lining the inner
surface of compact bone.
At the ends of the bone the periosteum is continuous with
the joint capsule, but it does not cover the articular cartilage.
Periosteum serves for the attachment of muscles and
tendons to bone.
Short bones
Short bones occur in the hands and feet and consist of
spongy bone and marrow enclosed by a thin layer of compact bone.
They are surrounded by periosteum, except on their
articular surfaces.
Sesamoid bones
Sesamoid bones are a type of short bone embedded within
tendons or joint capsules and these occur mainly in the hands and feet,
although the patella represents a particularly large example of a sesamoid
bone.
They vary in size and number.
Some clearly serve to alter the angle of pull of a
tendon.
Others, however, are so small that they are of scant
functional importance.
Accessory bones
Accessory, or supernumerary, bones are bones that are not
regularly present.
They occur chiefly in the hands and feet.
They include some sesamoid bones and certain ununited
epiphyses in the adult.
They are of forensic importance in that, when seen in
radiograms, they may be mistaken for fractures.
Callus, however, is absent, the bones are smooth, and they
are often present bilaterally.
Flat bones
Flat bones include the ribs, sternum, scapulae, lateral
part of the clavicle, and many bones of the skull.
They consist of two layers of compact bone with
intervening spongy bone and marrow.
The intervening spongy layer in the bones of the vault of
the skull is termed diploe: it contains many venous channels. Some bones,
such as the lacrimal and parts of the scapula, are so thin that they consist
of only a thin layer of compact bone.
Irregular Bones
Irregular bones are those that do not readily fit into
other groups. They include many of the skull bones, the vertebrae, and the
hip bones.
Superior orbital fissure
Boundaries
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Lesser wing of sphenoid bone
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Medial margin of orbital surface of greater wing of
sphenoid bone
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Contents
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4. Three branches of ophthalmic division of trigeminal
nerve
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5. Orbital branch of middle meningeal artery
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6. Filaments from internal carotid plexus of the
sympathetic
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7. Recurrent meningeal branch of lacrimal artery
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Venous sinuses of Duramater
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A. Posterior superior group
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7. Middle meningeal veins
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Structures passing through cavernous sinus
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1. Internal carotid artery
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6. Ophthalmic and maxillary division of trigeminal
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Greater sciatic foramen
Boundaries
In front and above : Greater sciatic notch
Behind : Sacrotuberous ligament
Below : 1. Sacrospinous ligament
2. Spine of ischium
Transmits
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1. Superior gluteal vessels and nerve
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3. Inferior gluteal vessels and nerve
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4. Inferior pudendal vessels
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7. Posterior femoral cutaneous nerve
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8. Nerves to obturator internus and quadratus
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Lesser sciatic foramen
Boundaries
Front : Body of the ischium
Above : 1. Body of the ischium
2.
Sacrospinous ligament
Behind : Sacrotuberous ligament
Transmits
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1. Tendon of obturator internus
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2. Nerve to obturator internus
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3. Internal pudendal vessels
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Femoral triangle
Boundaries
Lateral : Medial margin of sartorius
Medial : Medial margin of adductor longus
Above : Inguinal ligament
Floor : 1. Iliacus
2. Psoas
major
3.
Pectineus
4. Adductor
longus
Contains
Anterior triangle of neck
Boundaries
Anterior : Anterior median line of the neck
Posterior : Anterior margin of sternocleidomastoid
Base : 1. Base of the mandible
2. Line from
angle to mandible to mastoid process
Apex : Sternum
Subdivisions
Carotid triangle
Boundaries
Behind : Sternocleidomastoid
Front and below : Omohyoid (superior belly)
Above : 1. Stylohyoid
2. Digastric (posterior belly)
Superficial
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Branches of facial and cutaneous cervical nerves
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Floor
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Pharyngeal constrictor muscle (inferior and middle)
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Contents
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2. External carotid artery
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3. Internal carotid artery
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4. Superior thyroid artery
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6. Ascending pharyngeal artery
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4. Ascending pharyngeal vein
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2. Internal laryngeal nerve
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3. External laryngeal nerve
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Posterior triangle of neck
Boundaries
Front : Sternocleidomastoid
Behind : Anterior margin of trapezius
Base : Middle one-third of the clavicle
Apex : Occipital bone between the attachment of sternocleidomastoid and
trapezius
Subdivisions
Vertebral Column
Overview
1. The vertebral column is a flexuous and
flexible column, formed of a series of bones called vertebra
2. The vertebrae are thirty-three in
number
3. This number is sometimes
increased by an additional vertebra in one region, or it may be diminished in
one region, the deficiency often being supplied by an additional vertebra in
another. The number of cervical vertebra is, however, very rarely increased
or diminished.
4. The vertebra¦ in the upper three regions of
the column remain distinct throughout life, and are known as true or movable
vertebra.
5. The vertebra¦ of the sacral and coccygeal
regions, are termed false or fixed vertebra¦, because they are united with
one another in the adult to form two bones - five forming the upper bone or
sacrum, and four the terminal bone or coccyx.
6. With the exception of the first and second
cervical, the true or movable vertebra¦ present certain common
characteristics which are best studied by examining one from the middle of
the thoracic region.
General Characteristics of a Vertebra
A typical vertebra consists of three parts
a. Anterior segment, the body
b. Posterior part, the vertebral or neural
arch
c. Vertebral foramen.
The vertebral arch consists of
a. pedicles - one pair
b. lamina¦ - one pair
The vertebral arch supports seven processes
a. articular - 4
b. transverse - 2
c. spinous - 1
When the vertebra¦ are articulated with
each other the bodies form a strong pillar for the support of the head and
trunk.
The vertebral foramina constitute a canal for
the protection of the medulla spinalis (spinal cord).
Between every pair of vertebra are two
apertures, the intervertebral foramina, one on either side, for the
transmission of the spinal nerves and vessels.
Body (corpus vertebrae)
1. The body is the largest part of a vertebra,
and is more or less cylindrical in shape.
2. Its upper and lower surfaces are flattened
and rough, and give attachment to the intervertebral fibrocartilages.
3. Each presents a rim around its
circumference.
4. In front, the body is convex from side to
side and concave from above downward.
5. Behind, it is flat from above downward and
slightly concave from side to side.
6. Its anterior surface presents a few small
apertures, for the passage of nutrient vessels.
7. On the posterior surface is a single large,
irregular aperture, or occasionally more than one, for the exit of the
basi-vertebral veins from the body of the vertebra.
Pedicles (radices arci vertebra)
1. The pedicles are two short, thick
processes, which project backward, one on either side, from the upper part of
the body, at the junction of its posterior and lateral surfaces.
2. The concavities above and below the
pedicles are named the vertebral notches.
3. When the vertebra¦ are articulated, the
notches of each contiguous pair of bones form the intervertebral foramina.
Lamina
1. The lamina¦ are two broad plates directed
backward and medialward from the pedicles.
2. They fuse in the middle line posteriorly,
and so complete the posterior boundary of the vertebral foramen.
3. Their upper borders and the lower parts of
their anterior surfaces are rough for the attachment of the ligamenta flava.
Processes
Spinous Process. The spinous process is directed backward and
downward from the junction of the lamina¦, and serves for the attachment of
muscles and ligaments.
Articular Processes. The articular processes, two superior and two
inferior, spring from the junctions of the pedicles and lamina
The superior project upward, and their
articular surfaces are directed more or less backward
The inferior project downward, and their
surfaces look more or less forward.
The articular surfaces are coated with hyaline
cartilage.
Transverse Processes. The transverse processes, two in number, project
one at either side from the point where the lamina joins the pedicle, between
the superior and inferior articular processes.
They serve for the attachment of muscles and
ligaments.
Structure of a Vertebra
1. The body is composed of cancellous tissue,
covered by a thin coating of compact bone.
2. The latter is perforated by numerous
orifices, some of large size for the passage of vessels.
3. The interior of the bone is traversed by
one or two large canals, for the reception of veins, which converge toward a
single large, irregular aperture, or several small apertures, at the
posterior part of the body.
4. The thin bony lamella of the cancellous
tissue are more pronounced in lines perpendicular to the upper and lower
surfaces and are developed in response to greater pressure in this direction.
5. The arch and processes projecting from it
have thick coverings of compact tissue.
Cervical Vertebrae
1. Cervical vertebra are the smallest of
the true vertebra, and can be readily distinguished from those of the
thoracic or lumbar regions by the presence of a foramen in each transverse
process.
2. The first, second, and seventh present
exceptional features and must be separately described; the following
characteristics are common to the remaining four.
Body
1. Body is small, and broader from side to
side than from before backward.
2. The anterior and posterior surfaces are
flattened and of equal depth; the former is placed on a lower level than the
latter
3. Inferior border is prolonged downward, so
as to overlap the upper and forepart of the vertebra below.
4. The upper surface is concave transversely,
and presents a projecting lip on either side.
5. The lower surface is concave from before
backward, convex from side to side, and presents laterally shallow concavities
which receive the corresponding projecting lips of the subjacent vertebra.
Pedicles
Pedicles are directed lateralward and
backward, and are attached to the body midway between its upper and lower
borders, so that the superior vertebral notch is as deep as the inferior, but
it is, at the same time, narrower.
Laminae
Laminae are narrow, and thinner above than
below
Vertebral foramen
Vertebral foramen is large, and of a
triangular form.
Spinous processes
1. Spinous process is short and bifid, the two
divisions being often of unequal size.
2. The superior and inferior articular
processes on either side are fused to form an articular pillar, which
projects lateralward from the junction of the pedicle and lamina.
3. The articular facets are flat and of an
oval form.
4. The superior look backward, upward, and
slightly medialward
5. The inferior forward, downward, and
slightly lateralward.
6. The transverse processes are each pierced
by the foramen transversarium, which, in the upper six vertebra, gives
passage to the vertebral artery and vein and a plexus of sympathetic nerves.
7. Each process consists of an anterior and a
posterior part.
8. The anterior portion is the homologue of
the rib in the thoracic region, and is therefore named the costal process or
costal element.
9. It arises from the side of the body, is
directed lateralward in front of the foramen, and ends in a tubercle, the
anterior tubercle.
10. The posterior part, the true transverse
process, springs from the vertebral arch behind the foramen, and is directed
forward and lateralward.
11. It ends in a flattened vertical tubercle,
the posterior tubercle.
12. These two parts are joined, outside the
foramen, by a bar of bone which exhibits a deep sulcus on its upper surface
for the passage of the corresponding spinal nerve.
First Cervical Vertebra
1. The first cervical vertebra is named the
atlas because it supports the globe of the head.
2. Its chief peculiarity is that it has no
body, and this is due to the fact that the body of the atlas has fused with
that of the next vertebra.
3. Its other peculiarities are that it has no
spinous process, is ring-like, and consists of an anterior and a posterior
arch and two lateral masses.
4. The anterior arch forms about one-fifth of
the ring.
5. Its anterior surface is convex, and
presents at its center the anterior tubercle for the attachment of the Longus
colli muscles
6. Posteriorly it is concave, and marked by a
smooth, oval or circular facet (fovea dentis), for articulation with the
odontoid process (dens) of the axis.
7. The upper and lower borders respectively
give attachment to the anterior atlantooccipital membrane and the anterior
atlantoaxial ligament.
8. The former connects it with the occipital
bone above, and the latter with the axis below.
9. The posterior arch forms about two-fifths
of the circumference of the ring.
10. It ends behind in the posterior tubercle,
which is the rudiment of a spinous process and gives origin to the Recti
capitis posteriores minores.
11. The diminutive size of this process
prevents any interference with the movements between the atlas and the skull.
12. The posterior part of the arch presents
above and behind a rounded edge for the attachment of the posterior
atlanto-occipital membrane.
13. Immediately behind each superior articular
process is a groove (sulcus arteria vertebralis), sometimes converted into a
foramen by a delicate bony spiculum which arches backward from the posterior
end of the superior articular process.
14. This groove represents the superior
vertebral notch, and serves for the transmission of the vertebral artery,
which, after ascending through the foramen in the transverse process, winds
around the lateral mass in a direction backward and medialward.
15. It also transmits the suboccipital (first
spinal) nerve.
16. On the under surface of the posterior
arch, behind the articular facets, are two shallow grooves, the inferior
vertebral notches.
17. The lower border gives attachment to the
posterior atlantoaxial ligament, which connects it with the axis.
18. The lateral masses are the most bulky and
solid parts of the atlas, in order to support the weight of the head.
19. Each carries two articular facets, a
superior and an inferior.
20. The superior facets are of large size,
oval, concave, and approach each other in front, but diverge behind: they are
directed upward, medialward, and a little backward.
21. Each forms a cup for the corresponding
condyle of the occipital bone.
22. The superior facets are admirably adapted
to the nodding movements of the head.
23. Not infrequently they are partially
subdivided by indentations which encroach upon their margins.
24. The inferior articular facets are circular
in form, flattened or slightly convex and directed downward and medialward,
articulating with the axis, and permitting the rotatory movements of the
head.
25. Just below the medial margin of each
superior facet is a small tubercle, for the attachment of the transverse
atlantal ligament which stretches across the ring of the atlas.
26. The tubercle divides the vertebral foramen
into two unequal parts
a. Anterior or smaller receiving the odontoid
process of the axis
b. Posterior transmitting the medulla spinalis
and its membranes.
27. This part of the vertebral canal is of
considerable size, much greater than is required for the accommodation of the
medulla spinalis, and hence lateral displacement of the atlas may occur
without compression of this structure.
28. The transverse processes are large; they
project lateralward and downward from the lateral masses, and serve for the
attachment of muscles which assist in rotating the head.
29. They are long, and their anterior and
posterior tubercles are fused into one mass; the foramen transversarium is
directed from below, upward and backward.
Second Cervical Vertebra
1. The second cervical vertebra is named the
epistropheus or axis because it forms the pivot upon which the first
vertebra, carrying the head, rotates.
2. The most distinctive characteristic of this
bone is the strong odontoid process which rises perpendicularly from the
upper surface of the body.
Body
1. The body is deeper in front than behind,
and prolonged downward anteriorly so as to overlap the upper and fore part of
the third vertebra.
2. It presents in front a median longitudinal
ridge, separating two lateral depressions for the attachment of the Longus
colli muscles.
3. Its under surface is concave from before
backward and covex from side to side.
4. The dens or odontoid process exhibits a
slight constriction or neck, where it joins the body.
5. On its anterior surface is an oval or
nearly circular facet for articulation with that on the anterior arch of the
atlas.
6. On the back of the neck, and frequently
extending on to its lateral surfaces, is a shallow groove for the transverse
atlantal ligament which retains the process in position.
7. The apex is pointed, and gives attachment
to the apical odontoid ligament; below the apex the process is somewhat
enlarged, and presents on either side a rough impression for the attachment
of the alar ligament; these ligaments connect the process to the occipital
bone.
8. The internal structure of the odontoid
process is more compact than that of the body.
Pedicles
1. The pedicles are broad and strong,
especially in front, where they coalesce with the sides of the body and the
root of the odontoid process.
2. They are covered above by the superior
articular surfaces.
Laminae
The lamina are thick and strong, and the
vertebral foramen large, but smaller than that of the atlas.
Transverse processes
1. The transverse processes are very small,
and each ends in a single tubercle.
2, Each is perforated by the foramen
transversarium, which is directed obliquely upward and lateralward.
3. The superior articular surfaces are round,
slightly convex, directed upward and lateralward, and are supported on the
body, pedicles, and transverse processes.
4. The inferior articular surfaces have the
same direction as those of the other cervical vertebra
5. The superior vertebral notches are very
shallow, and lie behind the articular processes.
6. The inferior lie in front of the articular
processes, as in the other cervical vertebra
7. The spinous process is large, very strong,
deeply channelled on its under surface, and presents a bifid, tuberculated
extremity.
Seventh Cervical Vertebra
1. The most distinctive characteristic of this
vertebra is the existence of a long and prominent spinous process, hence the
name vertebra prominens.
2. This process is thick, nearly horizontal in
direction, not bifurcated, but terminating in a tubercle to which the lower
end of the ligamentum nucha is attached.
3. The transverse processes are of
considerable size.
4. Their posterior roots are large and
prominent.
5. Anterior are small and faintly marked.
6. The upper surface of each has usually a
shallow sulcus for the eighth spinal nerve, and its extremity seldom presents
more than a trace of bifurcation.
7. The foramen transversarium may be as large
as that in the other cervical vertebra, but is generally smaller on one or
both sides; occasionally it is double, sometimes it is absent.
8. On the left side it occasionally gives
passage to the vertebral artery; more frequently the vertebral vein traverses
it on both sides; but the usual arrangement is for both artery and vein to
pass in front of the transverse process, and not through the foramen.
9. Sometimes the anterior root of the
transverse process attains a large size and exists as a separate bone, which
is known as a cervical rib.
10. The costal element of a cervical vertebra
not only includes the portion which springs from the side of the body, but
the anterior and posterior tubercles and the bar of bone which connects them
Bones of base of the skull
Muscle attachments of first
rib
Muscle attachments of
clavicle
Humerus – Parts
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Lesser tubercle (tuberculum minus; lesser tuberosity)
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Greater tubercle ((tuberculum majus; greater tuberosity)
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Elevation – Lateral part of upper end
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Posterior aspect – 3 flat impressions
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Highest impression inserts supraspinatous muscle
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Middle impression inserts infraspinatus muscle
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Lowest impression alongwith body inserts teres minor
muscle
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Intertubercular sulcus (bicipital groove)
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Crest of greater tubercle
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Body (shaft; corpus humeri) – 3 borders and three
surfaces
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upper 1/3rd forms the lateral lip of the intertubercular
sulcus
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middle part forms the anterior margin of the deltoid
tuberosity
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lower half is smooth and rounded
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Lateral or spiral groove in the middle part
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Supracondylar ridge at lower end
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upper part of the medial border forms the medial lip of
the intertubercular sulcus
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continuous below with the medial supracondylar ridge
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Vshaped deltoid tuberosity a little above the middle
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Radial groove behind deltoid tuberosity, runs downwards
and forwards
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Lies between the anterior and medial borders.
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Upper 1/3rd is narrow and forms the floor of the
intertubercular sulcus.
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A nutrient foramen is present on this surface
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Lies between the medial and lateral borders.
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Oblique ridge in upper part
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Radial groove crosses the middle third
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Flattened from before backward, and curved slightly
forward
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Ends below in a broad, articular surface, which is
divided into two parts by a ridge
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Lateral and medial epicondyles project on either side
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Capitulum - Rounded projection which articulates with
the head of the radius
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Articulates with the trochlear notch of the ulna.
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Medial edge is responsible for forming the carrying
angle.
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Medial epicondyle - Prominent bony projection on the
medial side of the lower end.
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Smaller than the medial one
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Anterolateral part has a muscular impression.
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Lateral supracondylar ridge - Sharp lateral margin just
above the lower end
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Medial supracondylar ridge - Similar ridge to the medial
aspect.
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Coronoid fossa - Depression just above the anterior
aspect of the trochlea
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Radial fossa - Depression present just above anterior
aspect of the capitulum
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Olecranon fossa - Lies just above the posterior aspect
of the trochlea
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Muscle attachments of
humerus
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Floor of the intertubercular sulcus
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Lateral lip of the bicipital groove of the humerus
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Medial lip of the bicipital groove of the humerus
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Upper half of posterior surface of shaft of humerus
above radial groove
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Lateral head of the triceps – origin
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Lower half of the posterior surface of the shaft of
humerus
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Medial head of the triceps
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Front of the lower half of the humerus
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Middle of the lateral surface of the shaft of the humerus
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Rough area on the middle of the medial border
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Coracobrachialis – insertion
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upper 2/3rd of the lateral supracondylar ridge
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lower 1/3rd of the lateral supracondylar ridge
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Extensor carpi radialis longus
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posterior surface of the lateral epicondyle
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lower 1/3rd of the medial supracondylar ridge medial
epicondyle of the humerus
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Pronator teres (humeral head) – origin
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anterior aspect of the medial epicondyle
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Muscle attachments of radius
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1. Flexor digitorum superficialis
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2. Flexor pollicis longus
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3. Abductor pollicis longus
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4. Extensor pollicis brevis
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Muscle attachments of ulna
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2. Pronator teres (ulnar)
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3. Flexor pollicicx longus (occasional head)
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5. Flexor digitorum profundus
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6. Abductor pollicis longus
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7. Extensor pollicis longus
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9. Posterior border with aponeurosis common to :-
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a. Extensor carpi ulnaris
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c. Flexor digitorum profundus
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Carpal bones
Pelvis and perineum - Parts
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- False
pelvis
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The superior region related to upper parts of the pelvic
bones and lower lumbar vertebrae (greater pelvis)
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Generally considered part of the abdomen
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- True
pelvis ( lesser pelvis)
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Related to the inferior parts of the pelvic bones,
sacrum, and coccyx.
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Has an inlet and an outlet
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- Pelvic
cavity
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Enclosed by the true pelvis
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Consists of the pelvic inlet, walls, and floor
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Continuous superiorly with the abdominal cavity
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Contains elements of the urinary, gastrointestinal, and
reproductive systems
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- Perineum
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Inferior to the floor of the pelvic cavity
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Its boundaries form the pelvic outlet
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Contains the external genitalia
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Contains external openings of the genitourinary and
gastrointestinal systems
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Functions of Pelvis
Contains and supports :-
Bladder
Rectum
Anal canal
Reproductive tracts
Urinary bladder
Bladder is positioned anteriorly and the rectum
posteriorly in the midline, within pelvic cavity;
Supported by adjacent elements of the pelvic bone and by
the pelvic floor.
Urethra
Passes through the pelvic floor to the perineum;
In women, it opens externally and in men it enters the
base of the penis.
Rectum and sigmoid colon
At the level of vertebra SIII, sigmoid colon continues as
rectum which terminates at the anal canal;
Anal canal penetrates the pelvic floor to open into the
perineum;
The anal canal is angled posteriorly on the rectum;
This flexure is maintained by muscles of the pelvic floor
and is relaxed during defecation;
Anal canal and urethra have a skeletal muscle sphincter as
each passes through the pelvic floor.
Reproductive organs
In women :-
Vagina penetrates the pelvic floor;
Connects with the uterus in the pelvic cavity;
The uterus is positioned between the rectum and the
bladder;
Uterine (fallopian) tube extends laterally on each side
toward the pelvic wall to open near the ovary.
In men :-
Pelvic cavity contains the site of connection between the
urinary and reproductive tracts;
It also contains major glands associated with the
reproductive system - the prostate and two seminal vesicles.
In both genders :-
Roots of the external genitalia, the clitoris and the
penis, are firmly anchored to the bony margin of the anterior half of the
pelvic outlet, and a thick, fibrous, perineal membrane, which fills the
area.
Pelvic inlet
Heart shaped and completely ringed by bone;
Bordered posteriorly by body of vertebra SI, which
projects into the inlet as the sacral promontory;
On each side of this vertebra, winglike transverse
processes called the alae ( wings) contribute to the margin of the pelvic
inlet;
Laterally, a prominent rim on the pelvic bone continues
the boundary of the inlet forward to the pubic symphysis, where the two
pelvic bones are joined in the midline.
Pelvic serves as passge of structures between the pelvic
cavity and the abdomen;
During childbirth, the fetus passes through the pelvic
inlet from the abdomen, into which the uterus has expanded during pregnancy,
and then passes through the pelvic outlet.
Pelvic walls
The walls of the true pelvis comprise bone, muscle, and
ligaments, with the sacrum, coccyx, and inferior half of the pelvic bones
forming much of them;
The walls have two ligaments - the sacrospinous and the
sacrotuberous ligaments, which link each pelvic bone to the sacrum and
coccyx;
These ligaments also convert two notches on the pelvic
bones - the greater sciatic notch and lesser sciatic notch - into foramina on
the lateral pelvic walls.
Muscle attachments of Pelvic bone (Hip
bone)
A. Internal muscles of the pelvic
B. Abdominal muscles
C. Back muscles
D. Gluteal muscles
E. Muscles of the lateral rotator group
F. Hamstring muscles
G. Shoulder Muscles
B. Abdominal muscles
1. External oblique muscle attaches to the iliac crest.
2. Internal oblique muscle attaches to pecten pubis.
3. Transversus abdominis muscle attaches to the pubic crest
4. Pecten pubis via a conjoint tendon
C. Back muscles
Multifidus muscle in the sacral region attaches to :-
a. Medial surface of posterior superior
iliac spine
b. Posterior sacroiliac ligaments
c. Sacrum.
D. Gluteal muscles
1. Gluteus maximus muscle arises from :-
a. Posterior gluteal line of the inner
upper ilium
b. Rough portion of bone including the
iliac crest
c. Fascia covering the gluteus medius
(gluteal aponeurosis)
d. Sacrum
e. Coccyx
f. Erector spinae (lumbodorsal fascia)
g. Sacrotuberous ligament.
2. The gluteus medius muscle originates on the :-
a. Outer surface of the ilium between the
iliac crest and the posterior gluteal line above
b. Anterior gluteal line below.
c. Gluteal aponeurosis that covers its
outer surface.
3. Gluteus minimus muscle originates :-
a. Between the anterior and inferior
gluteal lines
b. From the margin of the greater sciatic
notch.
E. Lateral rotator group
1. Piriformis muscle originates from :-
a. Superior margin of the greater sciatic
notch
b. Sacroiliac joint capsule
c. Sacrotuberous ligament
d. Part of the spine and sacrum.
2. Superior gemellus muscle arises from the outer surface of the ischial
spine
3. Obturator internus muscle arises from :-
a. Inner surface of the antero-lateral wall
of the hip bone
b. Pelvic surface of the obturator membrane
except in the posterior part, from the tendinous arch
c. Obturator fascia, which covers the
muscle.
3. Inferior gemellus muscle arises from the upper part of the tuberosity of
the ischium, immediately below the groove for the obturator internus tendon.
4. Obturator externus muscle arises from :-
a. Margin of bone immediately around the
medial side of the obturator foramen, from the rami of the pubis, and the
inferior ramus of the ischium
b. Medial two-thirds of the outer surface
of the obturator membrane
c. Tendinous arch.
F. Hamstrings
1. Long head biceps femoris arises from :-
a. Lower and inner impression on the back
part of the tuberosity of the ischium, by a tendon common to it and the
semitendinosus
b. Lower part of the sacrotuberous ligament
2. Semitendinosus arises from :-
a. Lower and medial impression on the
tuberosity of the ischium, by a tendon common to it and the long head of the
biceps femoris;
b. An aponeurosis which connects the adjacent
surfaces of the two muscles to the extent of about 7.5 cm. from their origin.
3. The semimembranosus arises from the lower and medial impression on the
tuberosity of the ischium
4. The rectus femoris muscle arises by two tendons:-
a. Anterior or straight, from the anterior
inferior iliac spine;
b. Posterior or reflected, from a groove
above the rim of the acetabulum.
4. Sartorius muscle arises by tendinous fibres from the anterior superior
iliac spine,
G. Shoulder
muscles
Latissimus dorsi muscle attaches to the iliac crest and several places on the
spine and ribs.
Muscle attachments of femur
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4. Biceps femoris (short head)
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B. Insertions
Muscle attachments of tibia
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2. Extensor digitorum longus
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Muscle attachments of fibula
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4. Extensor Digitorum Longus
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5. Extensor Hallicis Longus
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7. Flexor hallucis longus
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Tarsal bones
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4. Cuneiform (intermediate)
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(a) Names of the bones
of the body and their position; classification of the bones with examples;
general
features of the bone and normal development; microscopic anatomy of bone;
general pattern
of
blood supply; ossification of the bones of the limbs for age determination.
X-rays of bones.
(b)
Process of repair of bone.
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